An examination of the global cocaine chain reveals a complex and dynamic industry that extends from the coca leaf fields in South America to end-users around the world. This chain not only includes the cultivation of coca leaves and the production of cocaine but also expands through an extensive network for transportation and distribution that blurs the lines between legality and illegality.
In this Smuggle Insight, we delve deeper into the key countries at each stage of this chain. We start at the source, where farmers in Colombia, Peru, and Bolivia cultivate coca leaves, and follow the journey of the final product through various transit countries where it often remains invisible to authorities. We discuss how international smuggling routes have evolved, with innovative methods ranging from the use of container ships to air freight, and even submarines, to deliver the drugs to their ultimate destinations.
Table of Contents
Production Countries
Producing Countries:
Colombia: Colombia leads in cocaine production with a significant increase in output. In 2023, the country produced a record amount of over 2,664 tons of cocaine, marking a 53% increase compared to the previous year. This not only makes Colombia the world’s largest producer but also highlights an unprecedented growth in production volume. Colombian production now exceeds ten times the amount produced during the era of Pablo Escobar, emphasizing the scale of current operations.
Peru: Peru is the second largest producing country with a notable increase in production over recent years. In 2022, Peru recorded a high in the production of cocaine and coca extracts, largely due to increased demand in new markets and improvements in production processes.
Bolivia: While producing less than Colombia and Peru, Bolivia still plays a significant role in cocaine production. It has experienced less international pressure and a reduced presence of foreign drug enforcement, which has kept production relatively stable, though there are signs of possible future increases.
Cocaine production begins with the cultivation of the coca plant, whose leaves form the basis for cocaine. These leaves are harvested and then subjected to a series of chemical treatments to produce cocaine base and eventually cocaine hydrochloride.
While most of the chemical processing occurs in the coca-producing countries of South America, there are indications that some stages of the production process are shifting to Europe. In countries like the Netherlands and Belgium, laboratories have been discovered producing cocaine from coca paste, indicating an expansion of production capacity beyond the traditional producing countries.
Routes and Transit Countries
The cocaine trade in Europe constitutes a complex network of production, transportation, and distribution extending from the source countries in Latin America to final destinations within Europe and beyond. The choice of transportation routes and transit countries plays a critical role in this trade.
Maritime Routes: Europe is flooded with cocaine that is mostly transported by sea. The ports of Rotterdam and Antwerp are known as the largest entry points for cocaine in Europe, with significant amounts being intercepted there. In 2023, nearly 110 tons of cocaine were seized in Antwerp alone, highlighting the scale of the trade. The port of Algeciras in Spain, which also plays a major role, witnessed a record seizure of 13.06 tons that same year, the largest in Spain’s history.
Narco submarines have emerged as a sophisticated method for drug smugglers to transport vast quantities of cocaine across the world’s oceans, out of sight from traditional surveillance methods. Here’s how they fit into the broader smuggling landscape:
Air Freight and Innovative Methods: While most cocaine arrives by sea, air transport is increasingly used for smaller, more valuable shipments. This can range from using commercial air freight to smuggling via passenger flights. Innovative methods such as using drones or hiding cocaine in liquid form or as paste for further processing in Europe are also becoming more common.
Transit via West Africa and the Middle East: West African countries like Senegal and Cape Verde serve as transit points for cocaine from South America destined for Europe. This route is utilized to bypass direct lines to Europe, taking advantage of weaker control mechanisms in the region. Recently, there has been a shift towards transit through the Middle East, with countries like Lebanon playing a role, as suggested by the presence of cocaine in the Bekaa Valley for further processing.
Evolving Smuggling Routes
In recent times, a shift in cocaine smuggling routes to Europe has been noted. While Belgium and the Netherlands have traditionally been significant hubs for cocaine importation, increased stringent controls in their ports like Rotterdam and Antwerp have led some drug smugglers to explore alternative routes.
Scandinavian Ports: Northern European ports in countries such as Sweden, Denmark, and Norway are increasingly used as entry points for cocaine. This is partly due to the perception that these ports are less rigorously monitored, making them attractive to criminal networks looking to circumvent pressure on traditional routes. For example, the port of Gothenburg in Sweden has seen an increase in the amount of cocaine intercepted, suggesting its growing role as a transit port.
Ports in France and Germany: Although less in the spotlight compared to Antwerp or Rotterdam, ports like Le Havre in France and Hamburg in Germany also receive cocaine, indicating that smugglers are willing to adapt their strategies.
Global Cocaine Consumption Markets
Europe:
Europe remains a dominant market for cocaine, with significant consumption that is even increasing in some countries. According to the EMCDDA (European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction), in 2021, 5.4% of the population aged 15-64 in the EU had experience with cocaine, indicating a stable or slightly increasing trend in use. Countries such as Spain, Ireland, and the Netherlands are known for their relatively high usage.
- Netherlands: The Netherlands has emerged as a significant hub for cocaine consumption and trafficking in Europe, with the highest cocaine use prevalence in the continent, reaching 3% of the population in 2023. This trend is particularly pronounced among younger adults, with around 17% of those aged 25-29 having tried cocaine at least once. The Dutch ports, notably Rotterdam and Vlissingen, are key entry points for cocaine, with nearly 60,000 kg seized in 2023. However, only about 10% of cocaine entering the country is consumed domestically, with most being redistributed across Europe, reflecting the Netherlands’ role as a major transit point
- Spain: Cocaine consumption in Spain is among the highest in Europe, with cities like Tarragona showing one of the highest consumption rates after Antwerp. Recent research indicates that 2.2 million Spanish drivers have admitted to driving under the influence of cocaine at some point, reflecting a 54% increase in traffic fatalities linked to cocaine use over the past decade. Usage among young people and in the nightlife scene is on the rise, with Spain standing out due to its significant share of drug seizures in Europe, particularly through the ports of Algeciras and Valencia. This trend is supported by the presence of Dutch drug criminals in Spain, contributing to the trade and related crime
- United Kingdom: Cocaine consumption in the UK has significantly increased, making it one of ex-Europe’s leading markets for the drug. With around 5.3% of young adults aged 15-34 having used cocaine in 2018, the UK had the highest prevalence rate in Europe, surpassing countries like Spain and the Netherlands. This trend has persisted into 2023, with the UK maintaining its position as having one of the highest rates of cocaine use globally. Reports indicate that cocaine use among various demographics has risen, with a notable increase in deaths due to cocaine misuse, from 112 in 2011 to 857 in 2022 in England and Wales. The drug’s availability has been highlighted as unprecedented, with wastewater analysis in cities like London showing daily consumption levels that are among the highest in Europe. This widespread use has economic implications, with the UK cocaine market’s value estimated at up to £11.8 billion annually
North America:
- United States:The United States and Canada both face significant challenges with cocaine consumption and trafficking. In the U.S., despite a historical decrease in consumption, recent increases in cocaine-related overdose deaths are partly attributed to the drug being mixed with synthetic opioids like fentanyl, leading to more lethal outcomes. The U.S. remains the largest global consumer of cocaine, with the majority entering through the Mexico-Central America corridor, particularly across the Texas border, although maritime routes are also utilized. The economic impact is enormous, with estimated revenues from cocaine sales reaching billions of dollars, primarily controlled by Mexican drug trafficking organizations.
- Canada: While having lower overall cocaine use compared to the U.S., has seen an uptick among younger adults. It serves as both a destination and transit point for cocaine, with significant quantities entering through its ports. The Canadian drug policy has shifted towards public health approaches, including decriminalization for small amounts in certain regions like British Columbia, focusing on harm reduction. Both countries are grappling with the complexities of drug trafficking, which includes evolving methods like smuggling through LAX in the U.S. and the use of maritime routes for entry into Canada.
Australia:
- Australia Australia has one of the highest rates of per capita cocaine use globally. The Australian Criminal Intelligence Commission’s National Wastewater Drug Monitoring Program has indicated that cocaine consumption has been on the rise, with New South Wales leading in consumption levels, followed by other states like Victoria and Queensland. In 2022-2023, it was estimated that more than 1.9 tonnes of cocaine were consumed in New South Wales alone, highlighting the scale of the issue in the region.
Asia:
Historically, the cocaine trade in Asia has been less prominent than in Europe or North America, but there are signs of growing markets:
- Hong Kong : Cocaine has become increasingly popular among young people in Hong Kong, overtaking cannabis as the drug of choice. The trend is particularly noted among affluent demographics and within the nightlife scene. A significant portion of young drug users, around 52% of those under 21, have used cocaine, indicating a major shift in drug preferences in recent years.
- China: While traditionally not as prevalent as other drugs like heroin or methamphetamine, there’s been a noted increase in cocaine consumption, particularly among the upper echelons of society. The economic boom has potentially fueled this demand, with more disposable income leading to increased drug use in social settings.
